Ethnobotanical Study of Mongolian Wild Vegetables: Nutritional, Medicinal, and Cultural Significance

Ethnobotany is deeply embedded in the daily lives of Mongolian communities, particularly in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of northern China and Mongolia. As regions characterized by diverse ecosystems—from expansive grasslands and shrublands to arid deserts—Inner Mongolia and Mongolia boast a rich array of wild plant species that have supported local populations for centuries. These plants serve as vital food sources and hold medicinal and cultural significance, playing a crucial role in the health and well-being of the people.

In Inner Mongolia, wild vegetables have long been an essential part of daily life, offering vital nutrition and a deep connection to traditional medicine and cultural practices¹. With its rich biodiversity, this region has been the focus of extensive field research, shedding light on the important role these plants play in Mongolian diets and healing traditions¹. From 2004 to 2006, a comprehensive analysis of 90 species of wild vegetables was conducted, highlighting their culinary uses and the medicinal benefits passed down through generations.

In particular, plants like Acer truncatum stand out for their bioactive compounds and pharmacological properties, offering promising therapeutic applications in modern medicine⁴. However, these resources face growing threats due to environmental and socio-economic pressures. Preserving the traditional knowledge surrounding these plants, and integrating it with modern agricultural practices, is essential for promoting sustainable development and biodiversity conservation in the region¹.

Ecological Background

The Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, located in northern China, covers over 1.18 million square kilometers, making up more than 12% of the country’s total landmass². Its geography is incredibly diverse, ranging from towering plateaus and mountain ranges to expansive deserts and grasslands. This diversity is paired with a temperate continental climate characterized by extreme seasonal shifts—long, freezing winters and short, sweltering summers. The northern and eastern regions are cooler and more forested. At the same time, the southern and western parts, dominated by grasslands and deserts, are where many of the wild vegetables traditionally collected by locals are found².

Due to its varied climate and geography, Inner Mongolia is a hotspot for biodiversity. More than 2,270 species of vascular plants have been documented, including 323 wild vegetable species. These plants are not only key to local diets, providing essential nutrients, but they also play a crucial role in supporting ecosystem stability and the livelihoods of the region’s inhabitants.

One area of particular importance is Daqinggou, a nature reserve in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Known for its rare broad-leaved forests, Daqinggou is a biodiversity hotspot where Mongolian and Han Chinese communities coexist. The flora here represents a mix of Changbai Mountain and Mongolian plant species, reflecting the area’s ecological richness².

Further to the west, the South Gobi region of Mongolia, specifically Umnugobi Province, offers another unique ecosystem. The arid desert landscape supports specialized plant communities, including the Cistanche deserticola-associated ecosystem, which thrives in harsh conditions². Traditional knowledge plays a vital role in using and conserving wild plants in this region, demonstrating how people have adapted to and thrived in extreme environments.

Nutritional and Medicinal Importance

Beyond their nutritional benefits, many wild vegetables are integral to traditional Mongolian and Chinese medicine. Commonly utilized species include Taraxacum mongolicum, known for its anti-inflammatory effects, and Allium mongolicum, which is traditionally used to address digestive disorders. The medicinal value of these plants underscores their significance in Mongolian ethnobotany, suggesting that further research into their bioactive compounds could unlock new therapeutic applications.

In Daqinggou, several wild edible plants are used for diet therapy, treating rheumatism, heat-clearing, diuresis, and tonifying Qi². For instance, locals use Adenophora polyantha and Cerasus humilis to relieve rheumatic pain. The knowledge of these medicinal uses is deeply embedded in the cultural practices of both Mongolian and Han Chinese communities. This cultural wisdom preserves a connection to nature and highlights the potential for novel treatments grounded in centuries-old practices.

Cistanche deserticola holds significant medicinal value in Mongolian traditional medicine. It is used to treat various ailments, including kidney deficiencies and digestive issues, and as a general tonic to enhance vitality². The plant’s ability to thrive in harsh desert conditions makes it an essential resource for local communities in the South Gobi region. As a revered adaptogen, Cistanche has gained attention for its capacity to increase energy and support the immune system, reinforcing its importance in traditional and modern herbal practices. Recent studies highlight the pharmacological properties of Acer truncatum, another valuable wild vegetable in the region. Research has identified numerous bioactive compounds in its leaves and other parts, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoids⁷. These compounds exhibit various pharmacological activities, such as:

Antitumor Activity

• The antitumor properties of Acer truncatum flavonoids, particularly pentagalloyl glucoside (PGG), are rooted in their ability to interact with multiple molecular targets involved in tumor growth, survival, and metastasis³. They are understanding the “how” and “why” of these effects requires exploring the specific pathways these compounds influence.
  • 1. Inducing Apoptosis: Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a highly regulated process often disrupted in cancer cells, allowing them to avoid death and proliferate uncontrollably. The flavonoids in Acer truncatum restore this apoptotic process through several vital mechanisms⁸:
    • Activation of the Intrinsic Pathway: The intrinsic apoptotic pathway is regulated by mitochondrial signaling, which is controlled by the balance of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins, primarily from the Bcl-2 family. Flavonoids from Acer truncatum have been shown to upregulate pro-apoptotic proteins like Bax while downregulating anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl-2⁹. This shift increases mitochondrial permeability, releasing cytochrome c into the cytoplasm, which activates caspases—enzymes that carry out the cell death process by degrading cellular components⁹.
    • Caspase Activation: Caspases are the executioners of apoptosis. Once activated, these enzymes cleave critical structural and regulatory proteins, leading to cellular breakdown. Flavonoids from Acer truncatum have been shown to directly activate caspase-3 and caspase-9, which are central to the execution phase of apoptosis⁸. This triggers cell death in cancerous cells, particularly those that have bypassed other forms of cell death.
    • ROS-Mediated Apoptosis: Another pathway through which these flavonoids induce apoptosis is the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). While ROS can cause damage to healthy cells, they also act as signaling molecules in cancer cells, promoting apoptosis when accumulated in high amounts. Flavonoids from Acer truncatum increase intracellular ROS levels, causing oxidative stress in cancer cells and ultimately leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death⁷.
  • 2. Inhibition of Angiogenesis: Cancer cells rely on angiogenesis—forming new blood vessels—to sustain their growth and metastasis. PGG and other bioactive compounds in Acer truncatum interfere with angiogenesis by:
    • Inhibition of VEGF Signaling: Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) is a critical molecule in promoting tumor blood vessel formation. PGG has been found to downregulate VEGF expression and inhibit the VEGF receptor on endothelial cells, preventing the growth of new blood vessels and effectively “starving” the tumor of its blood supply.
    • Suppression of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs): MMPs are enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix, allowing cancer cells to invade nearby tissues and form new blood vessels. Acer truncatum compounds have been shown to suppress MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity, which is vital in reducing tumor invasiveness and spreading cancer cells to other organs (metastasis).
  • Modulation of Cell Cycle Progression: Flavonoids from Acer truncatum have been observed to cause cell cycle arrest in cancer cells. This occurs by modulating cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), the proteins responsible for regulating cell division. By inhibiting these proteins, Acer truncatum compounds prevent the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. Specifically, the induction of G1/S phase arrest halts the progression of the cell cycle, providing an additional mechanism for inhibiting tumor growth.
• Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS) Inhibition: The role of fatty acid synthase (FAS) in cancer biology and metabolism provides insight into how Acer truncatum compounds can affect cancer and obesity.
  • Cancer Metabolism and FAS:
    • Cancer cells exhibit altered metabolism, known as the “Warburg effect,” where they rely on glycolysis and lipid biosynthesis to generate energy and support rapid growth. FAS is overexpressed in many types of cancer, including breast, prostate, and lung cancers, and is responsible for synthesizing palmitate, a major fatty acid needed for membrane production, energy storage, and signaling in cancer cells. Inhibiting FAS deprives cancer cells of essential lipids, leading to:
    • Induced Apoptosis: FAS inhibition triggers apoptosis in cancer cells by increasing levels of malonyl-CoA, a metabolic intermediate that can signal cellular stress. Malonyl-CoA accumulation leads to the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1), a mitochondrial enzyme necessary for fatty acid oxidation. This metabolic blockade results in energy starvation and apoptosis in cancer cells.
    • Autophagy and Lipid Metabolism: FAS inhibition also induces autophagy, a process by which cells degrade their components to survive stress. However, in cancer cells, sustained autophagy due to lipid scarcity can become lethal, contributing to cell death.
  • Obesity and FAS: In obesity, FAS is crucial for lipid accumulation in adipose tissue. By inhibiting FAS, Acer truncatum extracts may reduce the synthesis of fatty acids, decreasing fat storage and potentially lowering body fat. Additionally, by modulating lipid metabolism, these compounds could reduce the risk of obesity-related metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance and fatty liver disease.
• Antioxidant Properties: The antioxidant properties of Acer truncatum are primarily linked to its flavonoids and phenolic acids, which exert their effects through several vital mechanisms:
  • Free Radical Scavenging: Free radicals are unstable molecules that can cause damage to cellular components, including DNA, proteins, and lipids, through oxidative stress. This oxidative damage is a significant contributor to chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Flavonoids and phenolic acids from Acer truncatum act as potent antioxidants by donating electrons to neutralize free radicals, thereby preventing oxidative damage.
    • ROS Inhibition: The compounds in Acer truncatum not only scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) but also upregulate the expression of endogenous antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. These enzymes are critical in maintaining cellular redox balance and protecting cells from oxidative damage.
  • Reduction of Inflammatory Markers: Chronic inflammation is often accompanied by oxidative stress, which can lead to diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, and cancer. By reducing the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and interleukin-6 (IL-6), Acer truncatum compounds alleviate inflammation, thereby reducing the oxidative burden on the body. This anti-inflammatory effect synergizes with the plant’s antioxidant activity, providing comprehensive protection against oxidative stress-related diseases.
  • Neuroprotection: Oxidative stress is a significant factor in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. The antioxidant compounds in Acer truncatum can cross the blood-brain barrier, protecting neuronal cells from oxidative damage, improving mitochondrial function, and inhibiting neuroinflammation. This suggests potential applications in developing therapies for neuroprotective interventions.

Traditional Practices and Culinary Uses

The consumption of wild vegetables encompasses a variety of traditional practices that vary across regions and cultures. In Daqinggou, wild vegetables are prepared in various ways, including raw, steamed, fried, and pickled³. The most used edible parts in the Hassan region are tender stems and leaves, typically consumed as vegetables after mixed with cold elements or pickled². Fruits, roots, and rhizomes are primarily eaten fresh, emphasizing the diverse consumption patterns of wild edible plants. Here are several examples of plants utilized for different purposes.:

Sonchus weightings (Sowthistle)

Sonchus wightianus has a long history of use in traditional Mongolian and Chinese medicine and remains an integral part of the culinary traditions in Daqinggou. It is often consumed as a cold dish after being blanched and mixed with sesame oil, vinegar, and garlic. This preparation enhances the natural bitterness of the leaves, which is thought to stimulate digestion. In traditional medicine, Sonchus wightianus is used for its diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties, with applications in treating urinary tract infections and alleviating swelling⁴. Recent studies confirm these medicinal benefits, highlighting its role in promoting kidney function and reducing inflammation markers⁴​.

Further, Sonchus wightianus is frequently incorporated into soups and stir-fries in Mongolian and Chinese diets, particularly during the spring when its leaves are tender. Its rich content of vitamins, particularly vitamin C, and minerals such as calcium and iron contribute to its continued popularity as both a food and medicinal herb^3,4.​

Cistanche deserticola

Traditionally regarded as a potent adaptogen in Mongolian and Chinese medicine, Cistanche deserticola treats kidney deficiencies, boosts vitality, and improves sexual health⁵. In contemporary practice, the plant is commonly prepared as a tonic or added to soups, with the roots being boiled and consumed to enhance energy levels⁵. The plant’s polysaccharides have been studied for their ability to modulate immune function, reduce oxidative stress, and promote anti-aging effects⁵. Modern pharmacological research has found that compounds within Cistanche deserticola can improve cognitive function and reduce fatigue, validating its traditional uses².​

Furthermore, Cistanche is sometimes incorporated into herbal teas or dried and ground into powder for use in dietary supplements, emphasizing its health-promoting qualities. This shift toward commercial applications has ensured its medicinal properties are increasingly recognized outside traditional medicinal contexts^1,5.​

Allium mongolicum (Mongolian Onion)

Mongolian onion (Allium mongolicum) is another plant that serves culinary and medicinal purposes. Used traditionally to treat digestive problems and reduce cholesterol, Allium mongolicum is known for its strong, pungent flavor, similar to garlic or chives⁶. It is often chopped and added to stir-fries or raw vegetable salads in culinary applications. Its sulfur-containing compounds, such as allicin, contribute to its medicinal uses, particularly in promoting cardiovascular health by lowering blood pressure and cholesterol^2,6.​

Additionally, research has shown that Allium mongolicum has antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, effectively reducing the risk of infections and supporting immune function³. Mongolian nomads commonly consume it as a dietary staple, especially in areas where other vegetables are scarce^1,3.​

Adenophora polyantha (Ladybell)

Traditionally used in Mongolian medicine to relieve coughs and improve lung function, Adenophora polyantha is now commonly consumed as part of soups or teas to treat respiratory issues such as bronchitis. The plant’s roots contain saponins, known for their ability to soothe irritated mucous membranes and reduce inflammation. Recent studies have supported its traditional uses, showing that Adenophora species possess significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities¹.​

In culinary practices, the roots of Adenophora polyantha are often boiled in soups, where their slightly sweet flavor complements other wild vegetables. This practice is particularly prevalent during the colder months, as the plant is believed to strengthen the body’s immune system and protect against colds and flu².​

Taraxacum mongolicum (Mongolian Dandelion)

Mongolian dandelion (Taraxacum mongolicum) is widely used as food and in traditional medicine. The leaves are bitter and are typically blanched to reduce their bitterness before being used in salads or stir-fries⁴. Traditionally, Taraxacum mongolicum has been used for its anti-inflammatory and liver-detoxifying properties³. Its roots are sometimes dried and brewed into tea to support liver health and improve digestion³. Modern studies have confirmed its hepatoprotective effects, with research showing that dandelion extract can reduce liver inflammation and promote bile production, thus aiding in digestion and detoxification³.​

The plant is also rich in antioxidants, which help combat oxidative stress and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disorders⁴. This makes it a valuable addition to both the traditional and modern diet⁴.​

Cerasus humilis (Dwarf Cherry)

Cerasus humilis, or dwarf cherry, is prized in the Hassan region for its fruits, which are consumed both fresh and processed into jams and preserves. In traditional medicine, the fruit alleviates rheumatic pain and improves blood circulation⁵. Rich in anthocyanins, Cerasus humilis has significant antioxidant properties, contributing to its ability to reduce inflammation and protect against cardiovascular disease⁵.​

The fruit is also high in vitamin C and fiber, making it a popular choice in contemporary diets focused on health and wellness⁶. In addition to its medicinal uses, Cerasus humilis is incorporated into various desserts and beverages, where its sweet-tart flavor is appreciated​⁶.

Acer truncatum

In Mongolian and Chinese traditions, Acer truncatum has been used for its medicinal properties, particularly in treating neurological disorders and hypertension⁷. Its leaves are rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids, known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects⁷. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that Acer truncatum extracts inhibit cancer cell growth, reduce lipid accumulation, and improve cognitive function⁷.​ Culinary applications are less common. Still, young leaves are sometimes used in salads or as garnishes⁸. The plant’s medicinal properties are the primary focus of its use today, with ongoing research into its potential for treating conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and other chronic illnesses⁸.​

Oxytropis falcata

Traditionally, Mongolian medicine has used Oxytropis falcata to clear heat and detoxify the body. The plant’s decoctions are commonly prescribed for liver and gallbladder health. It is also believed to alleviate symptoms of jaundice and hepatitis. In modern practice, the plant is often consumed as part of soups or herbal drinks, with its detoxifying effects remaining a central feature of its medicinal application⁹.​

Studies have demonstrated that Oxytropis species have antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties, which validate their use in traditional medicine⁹. The plant’s ability to scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress suggests its potential as a treatment for liver-related conditions⁹.​

Moreover, the study of wild edible plants in both Daqinggou and the Hassan region illustrates the intergenerational transmission of knowledge regarding plant uses, which is increasingly at risk due to urbanization and changing dietary habits. Cultural significance of plant-based foods, documenting traditional knowledge and practices related to the naming and use of plants.³.

Challenges and Conservation Opportunities

Despite their ecological and cultural significance, wild edible plants in Inner Mongolia face various challenges, including habitat loss, overharvesting, and declining traditional knowledge. Urbanization and modern agricultural practices threaten the sustainability of these resources, while younger generations increasingly rely on cultivated vegetables, leading to a decline in the use of wild species.

Conservation strategies must integrate traditional knowledge with modern practices to address these challenges. The Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) can be a valuable tool for assessing the importance of wild edible plants and prioritizing conservation efforts. Species with high CFSI values, such as Taraxacum mongolicum, require targeted conservation measures due to their cultural and nutritional significance¹.

Furthermore, promoting awareness and education about the ecological value of wild edible plants can encourage sustainable harvesting practices. Collaborative efforts involving local communities, researchers, and policymakers can help preserve biodiversity while enhancing food security and promoting sustainable development¹.

Conclusion

The ethnobotanical study of wild vegetables in Inner Mongolia reveals their vital role in supporting local diets, traditional medicine, and cultural practices. The diverse array of species and their uses underscore the importance of preserving this knowledge for future generations. Additionally, the pharmacological properties of plants such as Acer truncatum highlight the potential for these resources to contribute to modern medicine.

Integrating traditional knowledge with conservation efforts and modern agricultural practices is crucial to ensuring the sustainability of wild edible plants. This will promote biodiversity conservation, enhance food security, and support the livelihoods of local communities while respecting their cultural heritage.

References

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