Chrysanthemums in Traditional Medicine: Ancient Blooms with Modern Healing Power

Introduction

A. Overview of Chrysanthemum in TCM

Chrysanthemum, known as Chrysanthemum morifolium and referred to as “júhuā” in Mandarin, is prominent in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) due to its versatile therapeutic applications. This herb is celebrated for its aromatic flowers, which are rich in bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, and essential oils that contribute to its pharmacological effects^1,2. In TCM, chrysanthemum is categorized among the “cooling” herbs, traditionally prescribed to dispel excess heat from the body and maintain yin-yang balance, an essential concept in TCM philosophy.

Chrysanthemum is frequently utilized for its anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antioxidant properties. It is particularly valued for treating heat-associated conditions like fever, headaches, eye strain, and sore throat. Research has shown that its flavonoid content, including luteolin and quercetin, may help inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines, providing scientific support for its use in inflammatory conditions^3,4. Additionally, studies indicate that chrysanthemum extracts may offer hepatoprotective benefits and support cardiovascular health, further diversifying its applications in integrative health practices^5,9.

The herb’s gentle action and minimal side effects make it a staple in the TCM pharmacopeia, where it is often combined with other botanicals like honeysuckle and mulberry leaf to enhance efficacy in detoxification, immune support, and eye health. Its longstanding use and scientifically supported bioactivity underscore chrysanthemum’s therapeutic potential, bridging traditional wisdom with modern pharmacology.

B. Historical Significance

The use of chrysanthemum in Chinese culture extends back over 2,000 years, deeply embedded within ancient China’s philosophical frameworks and medicinal practices. Chrysanthemum holds dual significance: celebrated for its therapeutic qualities and symbolic representation of longevity, vitality, and the cyclical renewal of life. Historical records, such as the “Shennong Bencao Jing” (Divine Farmer’s Materia Medica), an early foundational text of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), describe chrysanthemum’s medicinal applications in treating ailments associated with “heat,” such as fever, inflammation, and visual disturbances¹. This text, dating to the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE), categorizes chrysanthemum as a “superior” herb, indicating its safety for extended use and mild yet effective action in restoring health and balance^8,9.

Phytochemical analysis reveals that chrysanthemum is rich in bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, sesquiterpenes, and phenolic acids, contributing to its broad pharmacological activity¹. Studies confirm its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties, aligning with its traditional classification as a “cooling” herb in TCM, employed to dispel excess heat and restore yin-yang balance. These findings support the conventional view that chrysanthemum promotes longevity and rejuvenation by harmonizing the body’s internal energy².

Beyond its medicinal applications, the chrysanthemum has achieved cultural immortality in Chinese art, literature, and seasonal festivals, notably the Double Ninth Festival, during which it is honored as a symbol of resilience and steadfastness. In classical Chinese poetry, the chrysanthemum is frequently a metaphor for moral integrity and the undying human spirit. At the same time, visual arts portray it as a companion to the plum blossom, orchid, and bamboo—collectively termed the “Four Gentlemen,” each embodying esteemed virtues in Confucian thought¹⁰. This rich cultural and medicinal legacy underscores the chrysanthemum’s enduring relevance in Chinese medicine and heritage, where it bridges natural health practices and ancient China’s artistic and philosophical traditions.

 C. Purpose of the Article

This article aims to investigate the multifaceted role of Chrysanthemum morifolium and related species within Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), focusing on their diverse botanical varieties, bioactive compounds, therapeutic benefits, and preparation methods. By integrating historical perspectives from classical TCM texts with contemporary pharmacological research, this review seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of chrysanthemum’s enduring medicinal relevance. The analysis includes an examination of chrysanthemum’s primary phytoconstituents, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, and volatile oils, which are implicated in their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory properties^4,11. Additionally, we explore the herb’s applications in treating conditions categorized by TCM as “heat” or yang excess disorders, such as febrile illnesses, ocular inflammation, and cardiovascular imbalances, as well as its reputed role in promoting longevity and enhancing general vitality¹¹.

As modern medical research has increasingly explored natural remedies in recent years, chrysanthemum’s well-documented historical use in TCM presents valuable insights into its therapeutic potential and safety profile²⁸. This article aims to clarify the chrysanthemum’s place within TCM and integrative health practices by bridging traditional knowledge with current scientific findings. Moreover, understanding the herb’s mechanisms and efficacy could support its integration into evidence-based medicine, suggesting novel applications and combinations that may contribute to developing future pharmacological therapies¹².

II. Chrysanthemum Varieties Used in TCM

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum morifolium and related species) serve not merely as ornamental plants but as a foundational element of the herbal pharmacopeia, each variety offering distinct therapeutic properties suited to specific ailments^1,10. Different cultivars, such as Ju Hua (菊花), Hang Bai Ju (杭白菊), Huang Ju (黄菊), and Ye Ju Hua (野菊花), are selectively used based on their unique phytochemical profiles and targeted medicinal actions⁸. Recognizing these varietal differences is essential for practitioners to tailor treatments, as each cultivar contains unique concentrations of flavonoids, sesquiterpenes, and phenolic acids that correlate with its healing potential.

For instance, Hang Bai Ju, commonly grown in Hangzhou, is characterized by its cooling properties and high antioxidant levels⁸. It is particularly effective for clearing heat and addressing inflammation-related conditions such as eye strain, fever, and sore throat⁸. With a more robust and bitter flavor, Huang Ju is often used in TCM for its robust detoxifying and liver-protecting effects. In contrast, Ye Ju Hua (wild chrysanthemum), noted for its potent antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, is frequently prescribed for treating skin infections, sores, and abscesses due to its high concentration of volatile oils and potent antimicrobial action⁸.

This stratification among chrysanthemum varieties allows TCM practitioners to apply specific cultivars to treat conditions more precisely. With ongoing pharmacological research revealing chrysanthemum’s multifaceted bioactivity—such as its role in modulating immune responses, protecting against oxidative stress, and reducing vascular inflammation—understanding the distinct profiles of each variety enhances its integration into modern therapeutic practices²⁸. Consequently, chrysanthemums remain vital in traditional and contemporary herbal medicine, illustrating how nuanced botanical knowledge can inform more effective, targeted treatment strategies¹².

A. Common Types and Their Uses

Several distinct varieties of chrysanthemums are utilized in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), each possessing unique phytochemical profiles and specific therapeutic applications¹³. Among these, Chrysanthemum morifolium, commonly called “Ju Hua” (菊花), is one of the most widely employed species¹⁵. Known for its high concentrations of flavonoids and phenolic compounds, Ju Hua is particularly valued in TCM for its cooling (heat-clearing) and wind-dispelling properties^13,15. It is frequently prescribed to address heat or yang excess symptoms, such as fevers, headaches, ocular inflammation, dizziness, and even specific liver imbalances. This variety’s anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties are attributed to its high levels of compounds like luteolin, apigenin, and chlorogenic acid, which work synergistically to alleviate oxidative stress and reduce inflammation⁸.

Another widely used species is Chrysanthemum indicum (野菊花), or “Ye Ju Hua” in TCM terminology, known for its potent detoxifying and antimicrobial properties^6,8. Ye Ju Hua is traditionally prescribed for skin-related conditions, such as boils, abscesses, and other inflammatory or infectious dermatological issues. Its efficacy in these applications is linked to a rich profile of sesquiterpenes, including camphor and borneol, and flavonoids like quercetin, which exhibit antibacterial and anti-inflammatory actions. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that C. indicum possesses strong immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective effects, making it valuable in treating conditions associated with toxin accumulation and immune dysregulation.

Additionally, specific regional cultivars, such as Hang Bai Ju (杭白菊) from Hangzhou, are remarkably esteemed for their high-quality flowers and enhanced medicinal potency. This variety is often used to treat eye disorders, hypertension, and other ailments related to excess liver heat. In recent studies, Hang Bai Ju has demonstrated significant neuroprotective and cardiovascular benefits, supporting its traditional use in promoting eye health and reducing blood pressure^{15, 16, 18}.

The differential application of these chrysanthemum varieties in TCM reflects an understanding of their unique bioactive compounds and therapeutic profiles, allowing practitioners to target specific ailments with precision¹³. Such traditional knowledge, now increasingly supported by pharmacological research, highlights the potential for C. morifolium, C. indicum, and their regional cultivars to be integrated into modern medicinal practices, particularly as interest in natural, plant-based remedies grows¹⁸.

B. Geographical Differences

Geographical factors significantly influence the therapeutic efficacy of chrysanthemums in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) due to the direct impact of climate, soil conditions, and local environmental factors on the plant’s phytochemical profile. Variations in temperature, humidity, sunlight exposure, and soil composition can alter the concentration of bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, and sesquiterpenes, contributing to the plant’s medicinal properties^{15, 16,18}. For example, chrysanthemums cultivated in the Hangzhou region are renowned for their robust pharmacological profile, attributed to their specific climate and nutrient-rich soil^15,16,18. These chrysanthemums, often called “Hangbaiju,” are widely considered the gold standard for medicinal use, especially in addressing conditions like inflammation, fever, and eye health¹⁷. Consequently, TCM practitioners prioritize sourcing chrysanthemums from this region to ensure optimal patient therapeutic outcomes. Understanding these regional differences is essential in TCM for sourcing, prescribing, and standardizing medicinal plants, as geographical provenance directly correlates with efficacy and consistency in treatment outcomes¹⁸.

C. Cultivation and Harvesting

Cultivating and harvesting chrysanthemums for medicinal purposes requires a comprehensive understanding of agricultural and pharmacological practices to optimize the plant’s therapeutic value in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). The plants thrive in nutrient-rich, well-drained soils with ample sunlight exposure, conditions that support the biosynthesis of critical bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, and various sesquiterpene lactones^19,20. These compounds are known for their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, making cultivation conditions pivotal in maximizing the chrysanthemum’s medicinal potency²⁰.

The harvest of medicinal chrysanthemums is strategically timed in the late autumn, coinciding with peak bloom. At this stage, the flowers reach an optimal concentration of therapeutic compounds, as environmental stresses and maturation signal the plant to produce secondary metabolites. The flowers are meticulously hand-picked to avoid mechanical damage that could degrade these bioactive compounds²³. Post-harvest chrysanthemums are traditionally air-dried or undergo controlled drying processes, preserving their pharmacological properties by reducing oxidation and moisture content, which helps prevent the degradation of crucial ingredients²¹.

In TCM, specific chrysanthemum cultivars, such as the renowned “Hangbaiju” from Hangzhou, are often selected for their proven medicinal profiles and superior quality¹³. Each variety and regional source can exhibit unique chemical profiles due to variations in terroir, including climate, altitude, and soil mineral composition¹³. This diversity emphasizes the importance of cultivar selection and geographical considerations, critical in ensuring the highest efficacy for targeted therapeutic applications. Thus, TCM practitioners rely on a detailed understanding of chrysanthemum varieties, cultivation practices, and provenance to maximize the plant’s healing potential, aligning traditional wisdom with evidence-based approaches in modern herbal medicine¹⁷.

III. Therapeutic Benefits of Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum, recognized as “ju hua” in TCM, has been utilized for centuries due to its remarkable therapeutic properties. This section delves into the diverse health benefits of this versatile herb, highlighting its anti-inflammatory properties, effects on the respiratory system, and role in promoting eye health.

A. Anti-inflammatory Properties

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is widely recognized in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for its potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties, primarily due to its rich profile of bioactive compounds. Among these, flavonoids—such as luteolin, apigenin, and acacetin—are exceptionally prominent and have been extensively studied for their roles in modulating inflammatory pathways^4,29. These compounds exert anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting key signaling pathways, including the NF-κB pathway, crucial in producing pro-inflammatory cytokines^3,28. Additionally, chrysanthemum is rich in chlorogenic acid, a phenolic compound known for its antioxidant properties, which further contributes to reducing oxidative stress, a factor that exacerbates inflammation²⁷.

These anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms make chrysanthemum particularly effective in managing chronic inflammatory conditions, such as arthritis, where it can reduce joint swelling and alleviate pain²⁷. Studies also indicate its utility in treating inflammatory skin conditions, such as dermatitis, by mitigating inflammatory responses and promoting skin repair^4,24. Furthermore, the combined anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties help prevent cellular damage, enhancing tissue regeneration and supporting immune health.

In TCM, chrysanthemum is considered to aid in maintaining overall health and balance by reducing internal “heat” and dispelling “wind” metaphors in TCM that often correlate with inflammation and circulatory disruptions in modern medical terms. Thus, the therapeutic application of chrysanthemum extends beyond symptom management to supporting long-term health, with practitioners employing it as a preventative and restorative treatment to counteract inflammation and oxidative stress, thereby improving resilience against chronic diseases^4,24.

B. Effects on the Respiratory System

Chrysanthemum spp. Exerts notable effects on the respiratory system, attributable to its complex phytochemical composition and pharmacological properties. The herb contains bioactive constituents such as flavonoids, volatile oils, and phenolic acids, contributing to its therapeutic potential in respiratory health. Recent studies have demonstrated its ability to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress in the respiratory tract, making it an effective agent in managing acute and chronic respiratory conditions.

One of the primary mechanisms by which chrysanthemum benefits the respiratory system is its anti-inflammatory activity. Compounds such as luteolin and quercetin inhibit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukins, commonly elevated during respiratory infections and chronic inflammatory conditions like asthma^4,29. This action helps to reduce airway inflammation, prevent bronchoconstriction, and improve overall pulmonary function^10,29.

Chrysanthemum also exhibits antimicrobial properties, with studies showing its effectiveness against respiratory pathogens, including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and certain Haemophilus influenzae^1,2. The antimicrobial action is attributed to its volatile oils, such as camphor and borneol, disrupting microbial membranes and inhibiting pathogen proliferation³. This property is precious in addressing bacterial superinfections often accompanying viral respiratory illnesses.

Another notable effect of chrysanthemum is its role in modulating oxidative stress in lung tissues. Respiratory conditions often involve an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to tissue damage and worsening of symptoms. The herb’s antioxidant compounds, such as chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid, scavenge ROS, protecting lung tissues from oxidative damage and supporting recovery^10,29.

Furthermore, chrysanthemum’s bronchodilatory effects have been observed in experimental models, where its extracts have been shown to relax smooth muscle in the airways²⁶. This action is particularly beneficial in conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), where airway constriction is a primary symptom. These effects and their ability to enhance mucosal immunity make chrysanthemum a promising candidate for integrative respiratory care²⁹.

Emerging research also suggests chrysanthemum’s potential to mitigate the impact of environmental pollutants on the respiratory system²⁹. Its antioxidant properties may help counteract the inflammatory and oxidative effects of particulate matter and other airborne toxins, offering a protective role in urban and industrial environments²⁹.

The diverse effects of chrysanthemum on the respiratory system highlight its multifaceted therapeutic potential. By addressing inflammation, oxidative stress, microbial activity, and airway constriction, this herb represents a valuable resource in traditional and modern respiratory health approaches²³. Further investigations into its molecular mechanisms and clinical efficacy could pave the way for its inclusion in evidence-based respiratory treatments.

C. Role in Eye Health

The role of chrysanthemum in promoting eye health is extensively documented in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and is increasingly supported by modern scientific research. In TCM, eye health is closely linked to the liver’s function, and chrysanthemum is considered a liver-nourishing herb with the ability to clear excess heat and dispel wind, addressing symptoms such as red, swollen, or dry eyes often caused by environmental irritants and prolonged screen exposure, or fatigue¹. This aligns with the TCM principle that balancing the liver’s energy (qi) directly benefits ocular health¹.

Phytochemical analyses of chrysanthemum reveal a high content of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids (e.g., luteolin and quercetin), phenolic acids, carotenoids (e.g., beta-carotene), and vitamin C, which collectively contribute to its eye-protective effects. These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant activity, neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can damage ocular tissues and lead to cataracts and age-related macular degeneration (AMD)^3,12. Research has demonstrated that luteolin and quercetin can mitigate oxidative stress in retinal cells, suggesting a mechanism for the flower’s traditional use in preserving visual acuity and preventing degenerative eye disorders^3,12.

In addition to its antioxidant properties, chrysanthemum displays anti-inflammatory effects that further support ocular health. Chronic inflammation in the eyes can exacerbate conditions such as dry eye syndrome and conjunctivitis^11,28. Chrysanthemum extracts have been shown to downregulate pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), thereby reducing inflammation and improving comfort for individuals experiencing these conditions^8,10.

Regular consumption of chrysanthemum tea is widely recommended in TCM as a preventive measure for maintaining eye health. The tea’s mild diuretic effect is believed to enhance detoxification, further supporting liver function and, by extension, eye health^8,10. Modern studies have also highlighted the neuroprotective effects of chrysanthemum’s bioactive compounds on retinal ganglion cells, suggesting potential applications in managing glaucoma and other neurodegenerative eye conditions^11,28.

IV. Preparation and Administration

The preparation and administration of chrysanthemum in TCM are crucial to maximizing its therapeutic benefits. This section explores the various methods of chrysanthemum, highlighting its versatility and the considerations necessary for safe consumption.

A. Chrysanthemum Tea

One of the most popular and straightforward ways to consume chrysanthemum is in the form of tea. Chrysanthemum tea is traditionally made using dried flowers steeped in hot water. This preparation is known for its gentle, floral aroma and subtle sweetness. Tea is often consumed for its cooling properties, making it ideal for alleviating heat-related ailments such as sore throats, fevers, and headaches^1,10.

A standard method involves using 3-5 grams of dried chrysanthemum flowers per cup of water to prepare chrysanthemum tea^1,10. Depending on the desired strength, the flowers are typically steeped for 5-10 minutes. It is expected to enhance the flavor and health benefits by adding other ingredients such as goji berries, rock sugar, or licorice root^10,13.

B. Chrysanthemum in Herbal Formulas

Beyond tea, chrysanthemum is a critical component in various herbal formulas used in TCM. It is frequently combined with other herbs to address specific health concerns, leveraging synergistic effects^6,8. For instance, chrysanthemum is often paired with honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) in the classic formula Yin Qiao San, widely used for treating early-stage colds and flu⁸.

Herbalists tailor these formulas to individual needs, considering factors such as age, constitution, and the nature of the ailment. The precise formulation and dosage are crucial, as they determine the efficacy and safety of the treatment⁹. As such, individuals should consult with a qualified TCM practitioner when using chrysanthemums in this manner.

C. Precautions and Contraindications

While chrysanthemum is generally considered safe, there are precautions and contraindications to be mindful of. Individuals with allergies to the Asteraceae family, which includes ragweed, marigolds, and daisies, should exercise caution, as they may experience allergic reactions^1,14. Symptoms can range from mild skin irritations to more severe respiratory issues.

Furthermore, those with cold or deficient constitutions, as described in TCM, should use chrysanthemum sparingly, as its cooling properties may exacerbate their conditions. Pregnant and breastfeeding women should also consult healthcare providers before using chrysanthemum to ensure it is safe for their specific circumstances ^9,15.

In summary, the preparation and administration of chrysanthemum in TCM offers a range of methods to harness its benefits. Whether enjoyed as a soothing tea or integrated into complex herbal formulas, chrysanthemum remains a versatile and valuable herb. However, understanding its properties and potential contraindications is vital to ensuring its safe and effective use.

V. Conclusion

A. Emerging Research

Recent scientific studies have begun to validate and expand our understanding of chrysanthemum’s health benefits, bridging traditional practices and modern medical research. Emerging research is exploring the plant’s potential in areas such as cardiovascular health, neuroprotection, and its antimicrobial properties^5,12. These studies confirm the wisdom embedded in centuries of traditional use and open new avenues for integrating chrysanthemums into contemporary therapeutic practices²⁸.

B. Future Potential in Modern Medicine

As interest in natural and holistic health solutions grows, chrysanthemum is poised to play a more significant role in modern medicine. Its wide-ranging health benefits and ongoing research suggest that chrysanthemum could be valuable in developing new treatments and preventive strategies^4,29. By continuing to explore and validate the medicinal potential of chrysanthemum, there is a promising opportunity to enhance patient care and health outcomes, bridging traditional wisdom with modern scientific advancements²⁸.

In summary, the use of chrysanthemum in Traditional Chinese Medicine is a testament to its enduring value and potential. As research progresses, this humble flower will likely continue to bloom in traditional and modern medicine fields, offering hope and healing across cultures and generations^10,27.

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